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A Glance at the Usage of Red Color in Traditional Arts of Iran
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Thinker Maker in Iran Contemporary Craft
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Motifs, Symbols, Myths
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Art for Conservation
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Creating New Value Propositions and Adjusting the Existing Ones
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Crafts, the Scalability Dilemma

A Glance at the Usage of Red Color in Traditional Arts of Iran

By Ashkan Rahmani and Majidreza Moghanipour

Assistant Professors and Faculty Members, Shiraz University, Faculty of Art and Architecture

This article is an extract from a Farsi article originally presented at the National Conference on “The Influence of Iranian Islamic Art on Culture, Sciences, and Documentation” held at the University of Guilan in February 2019.

Color is an intrinsic aspect of nature that humans have been observing since ancient times. The spectrum of colors allows us to distinguish and identify various objects. In the traditional artworks of different regions in Iran, the color red holds significant prominence. Known as Persian Red, this hue symbolizes and represents the artistry of a specific region, serving as an iconic and even an identity-defining element. Across a range of handicraft disciplines such as handwoven textiles, local attire, tilework, and miniature painting, the color red carries profound meanings and conceptual significance.

In ancient times, people attached great importance to the symbolic meanings of colors. Colors were used to distinguish social classes and held symbolic significance in religious and mythological beliefs. Colors have a direct impact on human emotions, and the intensity of each tone and color can evoke different emotional responses. Even in the absence of physical objects, colors can still evoke feelings. Red, in particular, is often associated with joy, excitement, danger, guilt, violence, and death. In certain Western civilizations, red symbolizes renewal and hope for life. In China, copper red was highly prized and regarded as the most valuable color. Skilled craftsmen faced great challenges in creating this color on enamelware, and ceramic pieces with

copper red enamel were considered prestigious and exclusively reserved for the Emperor (Stinson & Cayton, 1390, pp. 235-236).

Humans perceive and interpret their experiences through two fundamental elements: form and color. When encountering objects in nature, our eyes initially discern their color, followed by their form. This visual information is then transmitted to the brain, enabling us to recognize and identify the objects.

Red is one of the first colors that humans have become familiar with. In fact, various colors have different impacts on human emotions and their reactions; and the studies on the use of colors, especially red as an effective factor on the human body, date back to ancient times. In different countries, colors have different meanings and concepts. In China, for instance, red is the color of happiness and bliss while in Africa it is the color of mourning and grief. In India and Buddhism, colors ward off evil energies and for this reason, the presence of colors, in particular red colors and shades is evident in all aspects of their life. Also in Iran, red is a sign of happiness; in our beliefs rituals, and traditional customs, red is a symbol of prosperity, happiness, and delight. In the traditional communities in Iran and the ceremonies, women tend to wear red clothes, as they see red as synonymous with beauty.

Light and color: The amount of light values and the intensity of hues in different colors have emotional impacts on humans, attract our attention, and have psychological functions. The low intensity of colors helps humans to feel delicacy, softness, and peace. Red is the main color where excitement and stimulation are needed. Colors depend on the light on a spectrum; colors under the effect of light always sit in this order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple.

Red in handicrafts: In this research, traditional arts include handicrafts, beliefs, and ceremonies. In different fields of handicrafts, red is regarded as the mother of colors and plays a pivotal role. The red color in handcrafts was taken from natural dyes ( mineral and organic ). Therefore, given the first materials used in handcrafts, the source of red is different too.

Handwovens: The captivating red hues found in Persian handwovens are typically obtained from two sources: the root of the Rubia Tinctorum plant and the Cochineal insect. When it comes to dyeing, the age of the Rubia Tinctorum plant holds great significance, as younger plants yield a brighter and more vibrant red shade. Depending on the province, some regions exclusively utilize the root of Rubia Tinctorum, while others rely solely on cochineal. The red derived from cochineal offers a deeper tone and serves as a distinctive marker for handicrafts in certain areas. This particular shade of red is the most prevalent color choice in handwovens crafted by nomadic tribes, particularly the Bakhtiari, Shahsavan, Qashqai, and Turkman tribes. The selection of red as the predominant color stems from its harmonious blend with the natural environment and its ability to evoke a sense of dynamism and activity, reflecting the inherent characteristics of nomadic life. In regions where urban carpet weaving flourishes, such as Mashhad, Kashan, and Tabriz, red is commonly employed as the background color in carpets.

Tilework: In some tileworks belonging to some buildings left from the Zand and Qajar dynasties, the figures of red rose and reddish pink iris can be seen. The most evident presence of these patterns with these colors is seen in Vakil Mosque and Moshir Mosque in Shiraz and Sepah Salar Mosque in Tehran. The use of flowers with red colors and pink shades along with green leaves creates a contrast in patterns which usually are encompassed by some yellow margins. Indeed, this combination of colors makes the patterns more attractive and eye-catching.

Pottery: In pottery, unlike many other handcrafted items that require the addition of specific materials to achieve a red color, the distinctive red hue in pottery is derived from the inherent mineral elements present in the pottery soil itself. This natural characteristic of pottery has been observed since ancient times, and various examples of such pottery have been found throughout history. For instance, Pope’s research highlights the existence of handmade pottery in Sialk around 5000 BC, which featured a dual coloring scheme with one side black and the other side red (Pope, 1986, p. 17). Another notable region in Iran renowned for its exceptional pottery is Kalp Organ, located in Sistan Baluchestan, where the reddish coloration of the pottery is a result of the elemental composition found in the local soil.

Miniature and illumination: Red color has always been the main color for portrait and illumination. The portrait artist uses the mineral element called Shengerf to acquire red dye. Not only does the artist use red as a material and physical color on designs and patterns, but rather they use it to present their mystical views based on the spiritual and cultural nature of the art. The best sample of the usage of red color which is associated with its concept semantically is the picture drawn by the professional artist Kamal al-Din Behzad.

Red in glassware: Red glasses are produced by incorporating oxide elements and transition metals, such as iron oxide, copper oxide, or silicon oxide, into the molten glass. This process results in the formation of different colored metals with either the same or varying valencies.

Local costumes of tribes: The people’s lifestyle is directly linked to the chosen colors, and the way of life in Iran’s different tribes, in particular, the traditional clothes of women are like a colorful palette on which all the colors exist. Often the selected colors are in harmony with nature. The nomad women’s red clothes are the most outstanding amongst all other colors as if the clothes’ colors are planned based on red. In fact, they usually wear red clothes in festive ceremonies and rituals.

Precious and semi-precious gems: Amongst precious and semi-precious gems used as jewelry and ornaments, three types are in red shades and are regarded as high status by Muslims: 1. “Ruby” (red sapphire) as an icon of dignity and beauty, 2. “ Red Agate” for warding off enemies and evil, and 3. “Spinel”.

Woodwork: The red color in woods depends on the nature of trees growing in different regions. In other words, the geographical and climatic factors affect the trees’ color. For instance, Ziziphus Jujuba is a tree with hard strong redwood. The degree of red color in this type of wood differs depending on the tree’s habitat. The best type of wood from this type of tree belongs to Ziziphus Jujuba in Sarvestan, in Fars with a blood red color that is considered a very rare wood by khatam makers. Following the shortage of Logwood trees, this wood was used more than before. Both of these types of wood are used in khatam and marquetry ( forms of inlaying) woodwork.

Beliefs and Ceremonies: Understanding colors often occurs unconsciously, while their recognition should be contextualized within culture, religious beliefs, and societal ceremonies, taking into account the influence of climate. In ancient Iranian culture, colors held significant importance for a variety of reasons, particularly due to their strong connection to nature. Colors permeated every aspect of their lives, influencing customs and beliefs. The following are examples of some of these ceremonial practices:

Chahar Shanbeh Suri ( Festival of Last Wednesday of the year): One of the yearly rituals observed by Iranians takes place on the evening of the last Tuesday of the solar calendar (Jalali Calendar) year. During this event, Iranians gather to light bonfires and engage in the tradition of jumping over the flames. As they leap over the fire, they sing the following line, “My yellow face for you, and your redness for me.” This ritual serves as a preparation to welcome the arrival of Nowruz. In the context of this sentence, the color yellow symbolizes illness and disability, while redness represents health and ability. Further exploration of this topic will be covered in detail in upcoming issues of the magazine.

Cheleh be Dar Ceremony: In some nomadic tribes like Qashqaee, on the eve of February the 4th, the farmers dissolve some red-colored ink in water and paint the back and sides of their sheep with that paint. Indeed, by this painting, they get ready to welcome the coming beautiful spring in nature. (In Iran’s traditional customs and ceremonies, there exists another custom called Henna-Bandan, which you can read about in vol.4 of the magazine).

Welcoming the new year: In the tribes in the south of Iran, on the eve of Nowruz ( new year), some Henna is mixed with water, and Henna dough is rubbed onto the children’s palms while they are asleep. When the children wake up in the following morning they cheerfully see their palms red. Painting the children’s palms in red Henna brings about merriness, livelihood, jolliness, and health in the coming new year.

Red Handkerchief: The red handkerchief in the nomadic tribes is the symbol of prosperity, happiness, and activity. The Nomads in Fars tend to tie a red handkerchief on the main rope of their tent in the early morning of the first day of the new year. This red handkerchief is the icon

of the new year and the rebirth of life in nature. Some tribes keep this handkerchief on the rope for up to four days.

Beydaq: In wedding ceremonies, Beydaq (a flag-like cloth) is the symbol of prosperity, happiness, and marriage. In most ceremonies in Iran, the color of Baydaq is red to reveal happiness and excitement. Some days before the wedding ceremony, Beydaqs are put on the nomads’ tents or huts to show each passerby that two people have united and tied the knot with happiness.

Redfish: Putting redfish in a glass tank on Haft Sin for Nowruz is done some days before the beginning of the new year. In recent years, you can not find almost any house which doesn’t have redfish on Haft Sin. The presence of the Redfish symbolizes life, livelihood, and proactivity.

Finally, Red holds significant symbolism in Iranian handcrafts. It is the predominant color used in a wide range of Iranian artworks. In Iranian handicrafts, red is derived from various sources and employed in diverse shades and hues. However, it is the interplay between red and other colors that truly sets Persian art apart and contributes to its uniqueness. The effect of red on the overall composition and combination of colors distinguishes Iranian handcrafts and adds to their distinctive appeal.

References:

● Stinson, Ocvirk & Cayton, Wigg Bone (2011). Art Fundamentals: Theory and Practice. Translated by Mohammad Reza Yeganedous. Tehran: SAMT Publication.

● Pope, Arthur Upham (1986). Persian Architecture (the triumph of form and color). Translated by Keramat Allah Afsar. Tehran: Yassavoli Publication.

Thinker Maker in Iran Contemporary Craft

A Brief Review on Ira

The handicraft production process mainly originates from our understanding of life and surroundings handicrafts are the results of making a link between past and present that leads to the creation of a new order or entity.

In the last decade, in the handicrafts field, paying attention to the processes and acts of making received priority over the knowledge of materials and skills used. Therefore, it is time to find a more thorough and fundamental understanding of creative works and how sense-making happens. Sense-making in this field can be understood by justifying the choice of words.

Considering craft etymology, it is logical to accept the term in the field. Crafts had some specific characteristics, originating from creativity, being primarily made in a solo edition uniquely, and are considered an artwork in some cases. Whether today the same expression is extended along with art and/or fine art is a matter of debate and disputation.

Smith (2016) mentions that this entity called craft is internally diverse, or rather underpinned by several categories, so the word is to describe the activities of various makers. Glenn Adamson (2007) has made clear in his book Thinking Through Craft this is also a dimension that underpins almost any work of art. Further, craft pertains to those everyday items, mostly mass-produced, which are nevertheless manu-factured (manually created).

Helen Holmes (2015) considers craft an elusive term, mentioning that craft as a concept is ambiguous, and its opposition to ‘art’ has long been a topic of academic discussion. Buszek (2012), astonished by a speaker’s question, whether they think of themselves as craftspeople or artists?, soon proposed “Do you consider yourself as painters or artists?” to painting students. As a scholar of contemporary art, she believes that “craft mediums and processes have become inescapable in contemporary art.

Hanna Artendt, in 20 century, clarified thinking and making as “two different activities which never coincide”. The expression applied, therefore, as “Thinker-Maker” which is believed to fulfill the possible abstraction of the mind in thinking along with the mechanical procedure in making.

As of now, there are artisans, who are better to be called “Thinker Makers”, because they are working in different areas; from practical arts to visual arts, and do not particularly belong to a specific period or era. Contemporary artists/artisans have always attempted to express their ideas. Many works reflect social changes and evolutions such as the worldwide experience of the COVID-19 pandemic. But debate on what to name the work is still a challenge.

The word ‘Sanaye-e Dasti’ was used during the past years, and gradually ‘craft’ was applied to create a new concept. The authors and many scholars in these fields believe there is no equivalent in Persian for the word “craft” and we have to use the word itself. However, in contemporary Iran “Sanaye-e Dasti” is more distinguished compared to ‘handicraft’.

Handmade crafts have long been a part of our ancient cultural heritage. Although, the new generation seems to be trying hard to preserve and revive some of the old techniques, unfortunately, many have disappeared. Efforts for preserving these techniques will not result in any progress unless have

knowledgeable customers. Finding international customers for such products from Iran can be challenging since online restrictions on platforms like Etsy, and Amazon affected Iranian craftspeople negatively. However, other platforms such as Facebook and Instagram have served as digital shops.

This movement seems to pass through primary and various modes; craft stores largely grew after the Covid pandemic regarding the numbers before the pandemic, demonstrating such modes which directly indicate the audience’s awareness and their developing tastes.

As for craft and technology, what we comprehend from craft in this era remains a question. The hand-made machines which aim at boosting and promoting the craft present a new form of technology in the industry. Still, the craft is exposed to direct threats and vulnerabilities that in turn challenge the old concepts. The competence between hand-made and machine-made elements, though is still a topic. The question is whether the values are still considered.

Crafts in Iran have always reflected nobility and development in concepts. The challenge in the contemporary era is, regarding technology and craft, if traditional values are preserved. In recent decades though, we have had an outstanding climax in our lives which has led to more hand-made products available domestically and in workplaces and are considered much more valuable than before.

 

Writers:

Ms. Narges Marandi: Translator and Art researchers

Ms. Atefe Mirsane: M.A Decorative and applied arts and folk crafts

Craft Talk 4
Peyman Samandari, Researcher in the field of Culture and Cultural Heritage, in Charge of Education and Research in Malek National Museum and Library, Photo by Parvin Areli, 2020

Motifs, Symbols, Myths

Collective Memory of a Nation

When the collective dream of a group of people living in a land or culture is stipulated and a relatively long time has passed, it alters into a current that is continuing its life. Sometimes things are subtracted or added to, or sometimes they are completely transformed into something else. After a while, it slowly becomes one of the main and fundamental components of that culture’s integrity. Motifs and symbols are more of a tool for expressing beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and whatever people want to share, using a motif or symbol that remains like a mental structure on which we can build and shape the culture. The symbol or motif with the element of repetition forms the structure and puts it in its place. The motif and the symbol gradually advance their meaning with the help of a concept called nostalgia. Motifs have some sort of a dual state between myths and symbols, symbols have more visual aspects than motifs and respectively, motifs have more than myths. We have been debating for years whether we should imagine and think about myths or not. Many believe that this should not happen and should not be portrayed at all, while many believe that if we do not do this, they will not be known and seen and eventually be neglected. The reason for the second group is that since a myth, a motif, or a symbol is recorded and written in a form of a story or a film and develops a general and universal explanation, we come to a word called the death of a myth, perhaps, in other words, the death of a motif, death of a symbol. That is, it can not go further than that. A large part of the motifs we know and believe in are motifs that are natural and related to nature. Nature always exists, proceeds, and is constant. On the other hand, many of the myths and motifs that have been recorded, no matter how distorted, are kept through an ancient fixed source and continue to live. I'm not too worried about distorting motifs, myths, or even symbols. In my opinion, one of the main problems we are facing today is people’s incomplete understanding of the concept of the universe and its concepts. From nature to creation to the concept of God, religion, or even our definition of art and beauty. Another contemporary concern is the question of the applicability of symbols and motifs. In my opinion, this is a temporary period that must pass, and we have inevitably fallen into it and we should not forget that human beings have lived along with those motifs for thousands of years. I believe that people will go through this period and reach a state of peace. At that time, myths, motifs, and all these took on a more interesting form. The essence of motifs, symbols, and myths does not need to convey something precisely. We must let this lively and dynamic flow transfer, from one generation to another, art to art, look to look, period by period, and continue its life. We also have a duty not to forget some of the lessons we have learned. For example, one of the problems of the twentieth century, which has been relatively corrected in the twenty-first century, was that societies sought to unify cultures. But now we have learned that this is not right and that we should respect the cultures and ecosystems, record them, and also allow each ethnic group to keep what has been developed through being in contact with surroundings and its cultural history. Then, let's slowly allow cultural fusion to take place on a smaller scale as well. For example, Iranian music or myths in some places put themselves together with Indian myths.

Craft-Talk-3

Art for Conservation

Handicrafts for saving Endangered Species

Women’s empowerment through their indigenous arts to participate in sustainable tourism is pioneering. The “Art for Conservation” Project is one of the first projects with mentioned description in Iran to be founded by rural women with the support of Global Environmental Facility (GEF) small grants programme and UNDP and the Qeshm Free Area Organization. The project sought to bring employment and increase self-confidence in rural women, who learned their original arts from their mothers, relying on their capabilities and talents. This experience began in 2007 in the villages of Shib Deraz and Borka Khalaf on Qeshm Island, with the purpose of protecting the environment and the region’s culture, which has played an important role in promoting this idea in other villages of the island. The women of these two villages produce their authentic handicrafts in a practical way that can be offered to tourists, and for this purpose, they have established a shop to market these handicrafts. Counting on the indigenous skills of rural communities can create a suitable and secure basis for economic growth and environmental protection. It also leads to their reconciliation with cultural values and communication between generations, and strengthens their self-confidence and communication skills. The empowered women of these villages have come to believe that tourists travel to these villages due to the island’s environmental significance, therefore they have an opportunity to increase employment rates, interact with new friends and exchange information and participate in social activities. Village women embroider the image of endangered species of black lip oysters and hawksbill sea turtles using Golabetoon Douzi on their products, including bags, scarves, shawls, etc., in order to always remind tourists that while relying on their indigenous arts, they actually Introduce their treasured culture. They have also participated in women’s educational activities in other villages and other projects, including the Qeshm Island Global Geopark project. During the implementation of this project and in interaction with various people, the importance of teamwork and participation is further strengthened and their motivation to continue their education and participate in social arenas increases. This path had its own ups and downs. Gradually, customer tastes and users from different regions influenced the products, and some manufacturers agreed to sacrifice originality for the customer’s needs. Tourists’ bargaining and lack of attention to the indigenous arts’ true value bothered the original producers and reduced their motivation. Thus, the difference between these products and other handicrafts that are produced only for wealth and fame remained hidden. After examining these challenges, we progressively came up with solutions with the help of local producers and consultants and we slowly untied the knots. Now, 15 years after this experience, the producers have been equipped with problem solving abilities and, in the words of the great Ferdowsi, have been brazen-bodied-impenetrable to weapons- or invulnerable in order to cope with the challenges that arise at any moment. Each region’s level of participation in empowerment projects varies according to the cultural background and the host community’s level of acceptance . Experience has shown that women in areas that are better off in terms of climate and natural resources, usually have incentives beyond economics. Discovering women’s inner motivations is one of the most important aspects of such projects, which differ from region to region and even from person to person. There are several barriers for women interested in participating in this type of activity. Facilitators in these types of projects extenuate these barriers and highlight their strengths so that this social, economic and cultural activity gradually finds its place in the small rural community What is important is the balanced growth of the group, building trust and attention to all members and creating empathy among them. All members must believe that individuals’ success is equal to the success of the whole group and that a successful group needs each of its members. This belief will not be achieved in the short term projects that do not have the right infrastructure. Usually, these kinds of valued activities root and settle in the area over time. In this way, different steps reinforce each other and the probability of projects’ sustainability increases.

Craft Talk 2

Creating New Value Propositions and Adjusting the Existing Ones

Approaches for the Admission of Handicrafts into Global Markets

About thirteen years ago, my brother and I came to China with our families. First for further education, then for business and life. One of our biggest concerns has always been defining Iranian identity for ourselves and our families, and introducing it to friends and Chinese society. Most of our time and volume activities during these thirteen years have been related to handicrafts, carpets, and other Iranian cultural products, and a large part of our credibility and identity among artists or Chinese society is related to these issues. But handicrafts and carpets are still a small part of our company's revenue. That is why I have to ask myself questions that we might have to ask ourselves before entering any business. What products are suitable for the global handicraft market? Does welcoming foreign tourists to local handicraft markets in Iran mean welcoming the same products in foreign markets? What is the way to adapt a handicraft to enter global markets, and turn it into a big business? Our years of experience in the Chinese market have clearly shown us that there are many obstacles to selling any country's handicrafts in new markets, and I will mention only one important point here, and that is recognizing values. Audiences buy goods based on their values. These values include a very wide range of functional values, aesthetic values, symbolic values, and etc. The industrial designers’ job is to identify the values desired by the audience and create those values in new products. For example, by considering the audiences’ lifestyle , we will find what this audience requires or desires as functions of a product and provide appropriate answers to those needs. Responding to the functional requirements of products may not seem so complicated, but correct identification of the requirements needs a great deal of knowledge and experience. For example, the value of a handicraft product for a tourist who eagerly buys it when visiting a tourist destination is more of a symbolic value, and a reminder of the joys and memories of the trip. Just as we may bring a piece of rock as a memento when climbing a high peak, while in everyday life we never notice such boulders on the side of the road. handicrafts Customers also do not see such a performance for imported handicrafts in their country's market, so they pay more attention to goods with certain functions for them. Products with a purely ornamental or so-called decorative function will have less chance of attracting customers' attention. On the other hand, designing handicraft products requires a different approach in designing new products and artifacts. All the components of a handicraft product, including materials, manufacturing methods, form and shape, and details and decorations, all have their own symbolic values and identity the violation of which can change the identity of the product. In this situation, in addition to creating new values, the common values in the cultures of origin and destination must be sought among the products. Different societies have common and non-common values, and entering the market of any country requires accurate identification of the destination market values, and finding common points between the countries of origin and destination. For example, the rich and ancient Iranian culture has common points with neighboring countries and Muslim countries (such as calligraphy or religious beliefs), and also has common points with ancient countries such as China and Japan (including common myths or historical ties). Choosing the products that are most in line with the target market values increases their chances of success. Collaboration of industrial designers with handicraft artists and craftsmen, in order to find common values on the one hand, and create new functional values in handicraft products on the other hand, can create very positive results. On the one hand, it provides an endless source of inspiration and infinite treasure of valuable traditional patterns for industrial designers, and on the other hand, it leads to the creation of products that are more practical, best-selling, and compatible to the needs of the target community, for artists and craftsmen. I hope we can address this issue with more precise elaboration later. Dr. Majid Shamaeizadeh, Co-founder Of Gemini Global And Persian Treasure Brand www.persian-treasure.com

Craft Talk 1

Crafts, the Scalability Dilemma

The Riddle of a Chinese Merchant in Isfahan

More than half a century ago, two American economists proved that the rising cost of art was the byproduct of what they called the "cost disease." In other words, the lower capacity of the arts to exploit technology leads to lower productivity; furthermore, because those involved have to use more workforce and face rising wages, the cost of producing a work of art increases. With an increase in the price of a product or service comes a decrease in its demand, and accordingly artists’ businesses earn less out of selling their products. One of the most crucial features of handicrafts, shared with other creative industries, is the rather high fixed cost and the low marginal cost. In other words, the production of the "first" product is expensive; however, it costs considerably lower to produce another one of the same product. Therefore, the profit margin in such industries is high, and that is why the more products artisans produce and sell, the higher their profit margin will be. So, it makes sense for artisans to make their businesses scalable. At first glance, through modification of the cost disease and applying technology, crafts will be closer to the industry and have higher capacity for production when compared to other creative industries; therefore, we may think that craft businesses have the comparative advantage of becoming scalable and growing faster than other businesses because of the lower marginal cost. But, is this feasible? Since crafts are still dependent on artisans personal work trying to maintain the “artistic” aspect in many cases, they suffer from the cost disease to some extent. Moreover, if we define scalability as an increase the number of customers, more profitability without increasing capital, and a small increase in the cost/profit ratio, and consider the field experience as well, then we can conclude that Iranian craft businesses have not been able to become scalable because if they scale up, the additional costs and the use of more artisans will limit their profit. This is why craft businesses have found their own reasonable scale through trial and error and do not scale up. An Isfahani artist says around seven years ago, an Iranian-Chinese businessman wanted to buy nine hundred thousand pieces of a Khatam artwork at its retail market price, but none of the craftspeople accepted his order, because they could not provide the sufficient human resources around, even if they could, their production cost would even go beyond the total contract price. In other words, higher production would lead to higher expenses rather than higher profit. This shows that the scalability of crafts is more difficult than it seems at first glance. Hamidreza Sheshjavani, Cultural Economist and Director of CACIMA, Center for Cultural and Creative Industries www.cacima.ir